skip to main content
10.1145/3603555.3603556acmotherconferencesArticle/Chapter ViewAbstractPublication PagesmundcConference Proceedingsconference-collections
research-article
Open access

Predicting Mouse Positions Beyond a System’s Latency Can Increase Throughput and User Experience in Linear Steering Tasks

Published: 03 September 2023 Publication History

Abstract

Latency is present in all interactive systems and decreases user experience and performance. Previous work developed approaches that predict user actions and show these predictions to reduce latencies’ negative effects. While this can increase user experience and performance, it is unclear if predicting beyond a system’s latency results in further improvements. Therefore, we investigated the effects of predicting beyond a system’s latency. We collected data from 60 participants performing Steering Law tasks to systematically train an artificial neural network (ANN) that predicts 100ms into the future. We integrated the ANN into the Steering Law task and buffered users’ inputs to simulate latency between 50ms and -50ms. A study with 30 participants showed that decreasing latency beyond the system’s latency increases throughput up to -50ms. Subjective measures improved up to -16.67ms without negative effects on agency. Overall, we show that predicting beyond a system’s latency can increase performance and user experience.

References

[1]
Johnny Accot and Shumin Zhai. 1997. Beyond Fitts’ law. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human factors in computing systems, Steven Pemberton (Ed.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1145/258549.258760
[2]
Johnny Accot and Shumin Zhai. 1999. Performance evaluation of input devices in trajectory-based tasks. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems the CHI is the limit - CHI ’99, Marian G. Williams and Mark W. Altom (Eds.). ACM Press, New York, New York, USA, 466–472. https://doi.org/10.1145/302979.303133
[3]
Takuya Akiba, Shotaro Sano, Toshihiko Yanase, Takeru Ohta, and Masanori Koyama. 2019. Optuna: A Next-generation Hyperparameter Optimization Framework. In Proceedings of the 25th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery & Data Mining, Ankur Teredesai, Vipin Kumar, Ying Li, Rómer Rosales, Evimaria Terzi, and George Karypis (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 2623–2631. https://doi.org/10.1145/3292500.3330701
[4]
Amazon Mechanical Turk. 2005. Amazon Mechanical Turk: Access a globl, on-demand, 24x7 workforce. https://www.mturk.com/
[5]
Axel Antoine, Sylvain Malacria, and Géry Casiez. 2018. Using High Frequency Accelerometer and Mouse to Compensate for End-to-End Latency in Indirect Interaction. In Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Montreal QC, Canada) (CHI ’18). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3174183
[6]
Leilani Battle, R. Jordan Crouser, Audace Nakeshimana, Ananda Montoly, Remco Chang, and Michael Stonebraker. 2020. The Role of Latency and Task Complexity in Predicting Visual Search Behavior. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 26, 1 (2020), 1246–1255. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2019.2934556
[7]
James Bergstra, Rémi Bardenet, Yoshua Bengio, and Balázs Kég. 2012. Algorithms for hyper-parameter optimization. In Advances in neural information processing systems 24, J. Shawn-Taylor, R. Zemel, P. Bartlett, F. Pereira, and Q. P. Weinberger (Eds.). Curran, Red Hook, NY, 2546–2554.
[8]
María J. Blanca, Rafael Alarcón, Jaume Arnau, Roser Bono, and Rebecca Bendayan. 2017. Non-normal data: Is ANOVA still a valid option?Psicothema 29, 4 (2017), 552–557. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2016.383
[9]
Kyle Brady, Bing Wu, Sung Hun Sim, Andinet Enquobahrie, Ricardo Ortiz, and Sreekanth Arikatla. 2017. Modeling Reduced User Experience Caused by Visual Latency. In Advances in Ergonomics Modeling, Usability & Special Populations, Marcelo Soares, Christianne Falcão, and Tareq Z. Ahram (Eds.). Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, Vol. 486. Springer International Publishing, Cham, 267–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41685-4_24
[10]
Polona Caserman, Michelle Martinussen, and Stefan Göbel. 2019. Effects of End-to-end Latency on User Experience and Performance in Immersive Virtual Reality Applications. In Entertainment Computing and Serious Games, Erik van der Spek, Stefan Göbel, Ellen Yi-Luen Do, Esteban Clua, and Jannicke Baalsrud Hauge (Eds.). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 11863. Springer International Publishing, Cham, 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34644-7_5
[11]
Elie Cattan, Amélie Rochet-Capellan, Pascal Perrier, and François Bérard. 2015. Reducing Latency with a Continuous Prediction. In Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Interactive Tabletops & Surfaces - ITS ’15, Nuno Nunes, Enrico Costanza, Patrick Olivier, and Johannes Schöning (Eds.). ACM Press, New York, New York, USA, 205–214. https://doi.org/10.1145/2817721.2817736
[12]
Mark Claypool. 2005. The effect of latency on user performance in Real-Time Strategy games. Computer Networks 49, 1 (2005), 52–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2005.04.008
[13]
Mark Claypool and Kajal Claypool. 2006. Latency and player actions in online games. Commun. ACM 49, 11 (2006), 40–45.
[14]
Mark Claypool, Ragnhild Eg, and Kjetil Raaen. 2016. The Effects of Delay on Game Actions. In Proceedings of the 2016 Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play Companion Extended Abstracts, Anna Cox, Zachary O. Toups, Regan L. Mandryk, and Paul Cairns (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 117–123. https://doi.org/10.1145/2968120.2987743
[15]
Brook Conner and Loring Holden. 1997. Providing a low latency user experience in a high latency application. In Proceedings of the 1997 symposium on Interactive 3D graphics - SI3D ’97, Andy van Dam (Ed.). ACM Press, New York, New York, USA, 45–ff. https://doi.org/10.1145/253284.253305
[16]
David Coyle, James Moore, Per Ola Kristensson, Paul Fletcher, and Alan Blackwell. 2012. I did that! Measuring users’ experience of agency in their own actions. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems. 2025–2034.
[17]
Jim Dabrowski and Ethan V. Munson. 2011. 40years of searching for the best computer system response time. Interacting with Computers 23, 5 (2011), 555–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intcom.2011.05.008
[18]
Jonathan Deber, Ricardo Jota, Clifton Forlines, and Daniel Wigdor. 2015. How Much Faster is Fast Enough?. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems(ACM Digital Library), Bo Begole (Ed.). ACM, New York, NY, 1827–1836. https://doi.org/10.1145/2702123.2702300
[19]
C. G. Drury. 1971. Movements with lateral constraint. Ergonomics 14, 2 (1971), 293–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140137108931246
[20]
Chlöé Farrer, Scott H. Frey, John D. van Horn, Eugene Tunik, David Turk, Souheil Inati, and Scott T. Grafton. 2008. The Angular Gyrus Computes Action Awareness Representations. Cerebral Cortex 18, 2 (2008), 254–261. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhm050
[21]
Paul M. Fitts. 1954. The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology 47, 6 (1954), 381–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0055392
[22]
Sebastian Friston, Per Karlström, and Anthony Steed. 2016. The Effects of Low Latency on Pointing and Steering Tasks. IEEE transactions on visualization and computer graphics 22, 5 (2016), 1605–1615.
[23]
Ashley General, Brandon Da Silva, Daniel Esteves, Matthew Halleran, and Michael Liut. 2016. A comparative analysis between the mouse, trackpad and the leap motion. In CHI Conference.
[24]
Ellen R Girden. 1992. ANOVA: Repeated measures. Number 84. sage.
[25]
David Halbhuber, Niels Henze, and Valentin Schwind. 2021. Increasing Player Performance and Game Experience in High Latency Systems. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction 5, CHI PLAY (2021), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1145/3474710
[26]
David Halbhuber, Annika Köhler, Markus Schmidbauer, Jannik Wiese, and Niels Henze. 2022. The Effects of Auditory Latency on Experienced First-Person Shooter Players. In Mensch und Computer 2022 - Tagungsband, Bastian Pfleging, Kathrin Gerling, and Sven Mayer (Eds.). ACM, New York, 276–286. https://doi.org/10.1145/3543758.3543760
[27]
David Halbhuber, Maximilian Seewald, Fabian Schiller, Mathias Götz, Jakob Fehle, and Niels Henze. 2022. Using Artificial Neural Networks to Compensate Negative Effects of Latency in Commercial Real-Time Strategy Games. In Proceedings of Mensch Und Computer 2022 (Darmstadt, Germany) (MuC ’22). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 182–191. https://doi.org/10.1145/3543758.3543767
[28]
L.K. Hansen and P. Salamon. 1990. Neural network ensembles. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 12, 10 (1990), 993–1001. https://doi.org/10.1109/34.58871
[29]
Niels Henze, Markus Funk, and Alireza Sahami Shirazi. 2016. Software-reduced touchscreen latency. In Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services, Fabio Paternò, Kaisa Väänänen, Karen Church, Jonna Häkkilä, Antonio Krüger, and Marcos Serrano (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 434–441. https://doi.org/10.1145/2935334.2935381
[30]
Ricardo Jota, Albert Ng, Paul Dietz, and Daniel Wigdor. 2013. How fast is fast enough?. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Wendy E. Mackay, Stephen Brewster, and Susanne Bødker (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 2291–2300. https://doi.org/10.1145/2470654.2481317
[31]
Topi Kaaresoja, Stephen Brewster, and Vuokko Lantz. 2014. Towards the Temporally Perfect Virtual Button: Touch-Feedback Simultaneity and Perceived Quality in Mobile Touchscreen Press Interactions. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception 11, 2 (2014), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1145/2611387
[32]
Shunichi Kasahara, Jun Nishida, and Pedro Lopes. 2019. Preemptive Action. In Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Stephen Brewster, Geraldine Fitzpatrick, Anna Cox, and Vassilis Kostakos (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1145/3290605.3300873
[33]
Joseph J. LaViola. 2003. Double exponential smoothing: An Alternative to Kalman Filter-Based Predictive Tracking. In Proceedings of the workshop on Virtual environments 2003 - EGVE ’03, Andreas Kunz and Joachim Deisinger (Eds.). ACM Press, New York, New York, USA, 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1145/769953.769976
[34]
Huy Viet Le, Valentin Schwind, Philipp Göttlich, and Niels Henze. 2017. PredicTouch. In Proceedings of the 2017 ACM International Conference on Interactive Surfaces and Spaces, Sriram Subramanian, Jürgen Steimle, Raimund Dachselt, Diego Martinez Plasencia, and Tovi Grossman (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 230–239. https://doi.org/10.1145/3132272.3134138
[35]
Youru Li, Zhenfeng Zhu, Deqiang Kong, Hua Han, and Yao Zhao. 2018. EA-LSTM: Evolutionary Attention-based LSTM for Time Series Prediction. http://arxiv.org/pdf/1811.03760v1
[36]
Hannah Limerick, David Coyle, and James W. Moore. 2014. The experience of agency in human-computer interactions: a review. Frontiers in human neuroscience 8 (2014). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00643
[37]
Shengmei Liu, Mark Claypool, Atsuo Kuwahara, James Scovell, and Jamie Sherman. 2021. The Effects of Network Latency on Competitive First-Person Shooter Game Players. In 2021 13th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX). IEEE, 151–156. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX51781.2021.9465419
[38]
Shengmei Liu, Mark Claypool, Atsuo Kuwahara, James Scovell, and Jamie Sherman. 2021. L33t or N00b? How Player Skill Alters the Effects of Network Latency on First Person Shooter Game Players. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Game Systems (GameSys ’21) (Istanbul, Turkey) (GameSys ’21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1145/3458335.3460811
[39]
Shengmei Liu, Xiaokun Xu, and Mark Claypool. 2022. A Survey and Taxonomy of Latency Compensation Techniques for Network Computer Games. Comput. Surveys (2022). https://doi.org/10.1145/3519023
[40]
I. Scott MacKenzie and Colin Ware. 1993. Lag as a determinant of human performance in interactive systems. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems - CHI ’93, Bert Arnold, Gerrit van der Veer, and Ted White (Eds.). ACM Press, New York, New York, USA, 488–493. https://doi.org/10.1145/169059.169431
[41]
Pedro Monteiro, Diana Carvalho, Miguel Melo, Frederico Branco, and Maximino Bessa. 2018. Application of the steering law to virtual reality walking navigation interfaces. Computers & Graphics 77 (2018), 80–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2018.10.003
[42]
James W. Moore. 2016. What Is the Sense of Agency and Why Does it Matter?Frontiers in psychology 7 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01272
[43]
Mozilla. 2022. Firefox 103.0, see all new features, updates and fixes. https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/103.0/releasenotes/
[44]
Mathieu Nancel, Stanislav Aranovskiy, Rosane Ushirobira, Denis Efimov, Sebastien Poulmane, Nicolas Roussel, and Géry Casiez. 2018. Next-Point Prediction for Direct Touch Using Finite-Time Derivative Estimation. In Proceedings of the 31st Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, Patrick Baudisch, Albrecht Schmidt, and Andy Wilson (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 793–807. https://doi.org/10.1145/3242587.3242646
[45]
Mathieu Nancel, Daniel Vogel, Bruno de Araujo, Ricardo Jota, and Géry Casiez. 2016. Next-Point Prediction Metrics for Perceived Spatial Errors. In Proceedings of the 29th Annual Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, Jun Rekimoto, Takeo Igarashi, Jacob O. Wobbrock, and Daniel Avrahami (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 271–285. https://doi.org/10.1145/2984511.2984590
[46]
Albert Ng, Julian Lepinski, Daniel Wigdor, Steven Sanders, and Paul Dietz. 2012. Designing for low-latency direct-touch input. In Proceedings of the 25th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology(ACM Conferences), Rob Miller (Ed.). ACM, New York, NY, 453. https://doi.org/10.1145/2380116.2380174
[47]
Ming Ouhyoung and Jiann-Rong Wu. 2000. On latency compensation and its effects on head-motion trajectories in virtual environments. The Visual Computer 16, 2 (2000), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003710050198
[48]
Phillip T. Pasqual and Jacob O. Wobbrock. 2014. Mouse pointing endpoint prediction using kinematic template matching. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems(ACM Digital Library), Matt Jones (Ed.). ACM, New York, NY, 743–752. https://doi.org/10.1145/2556288.2557406
[49]
Andriy Pavlovych and Carl Gutwin. 2012. Assessing Target Acquisition and Tracking Performance for Complex Moving Targets in the Presence of Latency and Jitter. Graphics Interface Conference 2012 (2012), 109–116. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.684.6207&rep=rep1&type=pdf
[50]
Andriy Pavlovych and Wolfgang Stuerzlinger. 2009. The tradeoff between spatial jitter and latency in pointing tasks. In Proceedings of the 1st ACM SIGCHI symposium on Engineering interactive computing systems - EICS ’09, T. NicholasC. Graham, Gaëlle Calvary, and Philip Gray (Eds.). ACM Press, New York, New York, USA, 187. https://doi.org/10.1145/1570433.1570469
[51]
Pooya Rahimian. 2019. The Effect of Latency on Steering Behaviour in Virtual Reality. Dissertation. University of Iowa, Iowa. https://www.proquest.com/openview/e9af4caf0b74b5041a15e6f4ac2df088/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
[52]
Andreas Schmid and Raphael Wimmer. 2021. Yet Another Latency Measuring Device. https://doi.org/10.5283/epub.45570
[53]
Emanuel Schmider, Matthias Ziegler, Erik Danay, Luzi Beyer, and Markus Bühner. 2010. Is It Really Robust?Methodology 6, 4 (2010), 147–151. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241/a000016
[54]
Valentin Schwind, David Halbhuber, Jakob Fehle, Jonathan Sasse, Andreas Pfaffelhuber, Christoph Tögel, Julian Dietz, and Niels Henze. 2020. The Effects of Full-Body Avatar Movement Predictions in Virtual Reality using Neural Networks. In 26th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, Robert J. Teather, Chris Joslin, Wolfgang Stuerzlinger, Pablo Figueroa, Yaoping Hu, Anil Ufuk Batmaz, Wonsook Lee, and Francisco Ortega (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1145/3385956.3418941
[55]
Ransalu Senanayake and Ravindra S. Goonetilleke. 2016. Pointing Device Performance in Steering Tasks. Perceptual and motor skills 122, 3 (2016), 886–910. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512516649717
[56]
Ben Shneiderman and Catherine Plaisant. 2005. Designing the user interface: Strategies for effective human-computer interaction (4. ed., internat. ed. ed.). Pearson/Addison-Wesley, Boston, Mass. and Munich.
[57]
R. William Soukoreff and I. Scott MacKenzie. 2004. Towards a standard for pointing device evaluation, perspectives on 27 years of Fitts’ law research in HCI. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 61, 6 (2004), 751–789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2004.09.001
[58]
Robert J. Teather, Andriy Pavlovych, Wolfgang Stuerzlinger, and I. Scott MacKenzie. 2009. Effects of tracking technology, latency, and spatial jitter on object movement. In Proceedings / 3DUI, IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces 2009, Kiyoshi Kiyokawa (Ed.). IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1109/3DUI.2009.4811204
[59]
Namal Thibbotuwawa, Errol R. Hoffmann, and Ravindra S. Goonetilleke. 2012. Open-loop and feedback-controlled mouse cursor movements in linear paths. Ergonomics 55, 4 (2012), 476–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2011.644587
[60]
Himari Tochioka, Haruka Ikeda, Tomohiko Hayakawa, and Masatoshi Ishikawa. 2019. Effects of Latency in Visual Feedback on Human Performance of Path-Steering Tasks. In 25th ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, Tomas Trescak, Simeon Simoff, Deborah Richards, Anton Bogdanovych, Thierry Duval, Torsten Kuhlen, Huyen Nguyen, Shigeo Morishima, Yuichi Itoh, Richard Skarbez, and Martin Masek (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1145/3359996.3364726
[61]
Rosane Ushirobira, Denis Efimov, Gery Casiez, Nicolas Roussel, and Wilfrid Perruquetti. 2016. A forecasting algorithm for latency compensation in indirect human-computer interactions. In 2016 European Control Conference (ECC). IEEE, 1081–1086. https://doi.org/10.1109/ECC.2016.7810433
[62]
Michael W. Vasey and Julian F. Thayer. 1987. The Continuing Problem of False Positives in Repeated Measures ANOVA in Psychophysiology: A Multivariate Solution. Psychophysiology 24, 4 (1987), 479–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1987.tb00324.x
[63]
Daniel M Wegner. 2003. The mind’s best trick: how we experience conscious will. Trends in cognitive sciences 7, 2 (2003), 65–69.
[64]
Raphael Wimmer, Andreas Schmid, and Florian Bockes. 2019. On the Latency of USB-Connected Input Devices. In Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Stephen Brewster, Geraldine Fitzpatrick, Anna Cox, and Vassilis Kostakos (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1145/3290605.3300650
[65]
George Zerveas, Srideepika Jayaraman, Dhaval Patel, Anuradha Bhamidipaty, and Carsten Eickhoff. 2020. A Transformer-based Framework for Multivariate Time Series Representation Learning. http://arxiv.org/pdf/2010.02803v3

Cited By

View all
  • (2024)The Effect of Latency on Movement Time in Path-steeringProceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems10.1145/3613904.3642316(1-19)Online publication date: 11-May-2024
  • (2024)Better Definition and Calculation of Throughput and Effective Parameters for Steering to Account for Subjective Speed-accuracy TradeoffsProceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems10.1145/3613904.3642084(1-18)Online publication date: 11-May-2024

Index Terms

  1. Predicting Mouse Positions Beyond a System’s Latency Can Increase Throughput and User Experience in Linear Steering Tasks

      Recommendations

      Comments

      Information & Contributors

      Information

      Published In

      cover image ACM Other conferences
      MuC '23: Proceedings of Mensch und Computer 2023
      September 2023
      593 pages
      Publication rights licensed to ACM. ACM acknowledges that this contribution was authored or co-authored by an employee, contractor or affiliate of a national government. As such, the Government retains a nonexclusive, royalty-free right to publish or reproduce this article, or to allow others to do so, for Government purposes only.

      Publisher

      Association for Computing Machinery

      New York, NY, United States

      Publication History

      Published: 03 September 2023

      Permissions

      Request permissions for this article.

      Check for updates

      Author Tags

      1. Steering Law
      2. latency
      3. neural networks
      4. pointing

      Qualifiers

      • Research-article
      • Research
      • Refereed limited

      Conference

      MuC '23
      MuC '23: Mensch und Computer 2023
      September 3 - 6, 2023
      Rapperswil, Switzerland

      Contributors

      Other Metrics

      Bibliometrics & Citations

      Bibliometrics

      Article Metrics

      • Downloads (Last 12 months)325
      • Downloads (Last 6 weeks)45
      Reflects downloads up to 20 Feb 2025

      Other Metrics

      Citations

      Cited By

      View all
      • (2024)The Effect of Latency on Movement Time in Path-steeringProceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems10.1145/3613904.3642316(1-19)Online publication date: 11-May-2024
      • (2024)Better Definition and Calculation of Throughput and Effective Parameters for Steering to Account for Subjective Speed-accuracy TradeoffsProceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems10.1145/3613904.3642084(1-18)Online publication date: 11-May-2024

      View Options

      View options

      PDF

      View or Download as a PDF file.

      PDF

      eReader

      View online with eReader.

      eReader

      HTML Format

      View this article in HTML Format.

      HTML Format

      Login options

      Figures

      Tables

      Media

      Share

      Share

      Share this Publication link

      Share on social media