Abstract
Photoelectric sensors are utilized in a range of safety-critical applications, such as medical devices and autonomous vehicles. However, the public exposure of the input channel of a photoelectric sensor makes it vulnerable to malicious inputs. Several studies have suggested possible attacks on photoelectric sensors by injecting malicious signals. While a few defense techniques have been proposed against such attacks, they could be either bypassed or used for limited purposes.
In this study, we propose Lightbox, a novel defense system to detect sensor attacks on photoelectric sensors based on signal fingerprinting. Lightbox uses the spectrum of the received light as a feature to distinguish the attacker’s malicious signals from the authentic signal, which is a signal from the sensor’s light source. We evaluated Lightbox against (1) a saturation attacker, (2) a simple spoofing attacker, and (3) a sophisticated attacker who is aware of Lightbox and can combine multiple light sources to mimic the authentic light source. Lightbox achieved the overall accuracy over 99% for the saturation attacker and simple spoofing attacker, and robustness against a sophisticated attacker. We also evaluated Lightbox considering various environments such as transmission medium, background noise, and input waveform. Finally, we demonstrate the practicality of Lightbox with experiments using a single-board computer after further reducing the training time.
- [1] . [n. d.]. Optex Outdoor Dual Beam Photoelectric Detector. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Optex-Outdoor-Dual-Photoelectric-Detector/dp/B007HKHJ8CGoogle Scholar
- [2] . [n. d.]. Smoke Detector Fire Alarm Product. Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/Detector-Ardwolf-Photoelectric-Battery-Powered-Included/dp/B071DQXW3WGoogle Scholar
- [3] . 2016. Experimental identification of smartphones using fingerprints of built-in micro-electro mechanical systems (MEMS). Sensors 16, 6 (2016).Google ScholarCross Ref
- [4] . [n. d.]. Basics of Photoelectric Sensing. Retrieved from https://stevenengineering.com/tech_support/PDFs/04PHREF.pdfGoogle Scholar
- [5] . [n. d.]. Liquid Leak Detection with a QS18. Retrieved from https://www.bannerengineering.com/my/en/solutions/other/liquid-leak-detection-with-a-qs18.htmlGoogle Scholar
- [6] . [n. d.]. Q4X Series Sensor. Retrieved from https://www.bannerengineering.com/us/en/products/sensors/photoelectric-sensors/q4x-laser-distance-sensor.htmlGoogle Scholar
- [7] . [n. d.]. Q5X Series Sensor. Retrieved from https://www.bannerengineering.com/us/en/products/sensors/photoelectric-sensors/q5x-series.htmlGoogle Scholar
- [8] . [n. d.]. QS18 Series All Purpose Photoelectric Sensor. Retrieved from https://www.bannerengineering.com/my/en/solutions/other/conveyor-jam-detection.htmlGoogle Scholar
- [9] . [n. d.]. WORLD-BEAM Q20 Series Sensor. Retrieved from https://www.bannerengineering.com/us/en/products/sensors/photoelectric-sensors/q20-series.htmlGoogle Scholar
- [10] . [n. d.]. WORLD-BEAM QS30 Series Sensor. Retrieved from https://www.bannerengineering.com/us/en/products/sensors/photoelectric-sensors/qs30-series.htmlGoogle Scholar
- [11] . 2019. Adversarial sensor attack on LiDAR-based perception in autonomous driving. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS’19). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, 15 pages.
DOI: Google ScholarDigital Library - [12] . 2014. A Platform for False Data Injection in Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar. Ph. D. Dissertation. Utah State University.Google Scholar
- [13] . 2019. DemiCPU: Device fingerprinting with magnetic signals radiated by CPU. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security.Google ScholarDigital Library
- [14] . 2014. Do you hear what I hear? Fingerprinting smart devices through embedded acoustic components. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security.Google Scholar
- [15] . [n. d.]. Single-beam Safety Sensor E3ZS/E3FS. Retrieved from https://www.fa.omron.com.cn/data_pdf/cat/e3zs_e3fs_ds_e_10_4_csm1260.pdf?id=1519Google Scholar
- [16] . [n. d.]. Generic PCA Infusion Pump Reference Implementation. Retrieved from https://rtg.cis.upenn.edu/medical/gpca/rtg-gpca-video-v1.htmlGoogle Scholar
- [17] . 1988. Formation of planar defects in the epitaxial growth of GaP on Si substrate by metal organic chemical-vapor deposition. J. Appl. Phys. 64, 9 (1988).Google ScholarCross Ref
- [18] . 2002. Silicon physical random functions. In Proceedings of the 9th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security. ACM.Google ScholarDigital Library
- [19] . 2018. Frequency modulation and absorption improvement of THz micro-bolometer with micro-bridge structure by spiral-type antennas. Nanosc. Res. Lett. 13, 1 (2018), 1–9.Google ScholarCross Ref
- [20] . [n. d.]. Intel RealSense LiDAR Camera L515. Retrieved from https://www.intelrealsense.com/lidar-camera-l515/Google Scholar
- [21] . 1998. Soft tempest: Hidden data transmission using electromagnetic emanations. In Proceedings of the International Workshop on Information Hiding. Springer, 124–142.Google ScholarCross Ref
- [22] . 2015. Color Consistency—One of the Challenges for Solid-state Lighting. Retrieved from https://www.ledinside.com/knowledge/2015/8/color_consistency_one_of_the_challenges_for_solid_state_lightingGoogle Scholar
- [23] . 2013. Fire dynamics simulator user’s guide. NIST Spec. Public. 1019, 6 (2013).Google Scholar
- [24] . [n. d.]. MongoDB Server. Retrieved from https://www.mongodb.com/Google Scholar
- [25] . [n. d.]. STS-NIR-L-10-400-SMA. Retrieved from https://www.oceaninsight.com/products/spectrometers/microspectrometer/sts-series/sts-nir-l-10-400-sma/?qty=1Google Scholar
- [26] . [n. d.]. Overview of Photoelectric Sensors. Retrieved from https://www.ia.omron.com/support/guide/43/introduction.htmlGoogle Scholar
- [27] . 2016. This ain’t your dose: Sensor spoofing attack on medical infusion pump. In Proceedings of the 10th USENIX Workshop on Offensive Technologies (WOOT’16). USENIX Association. Retrieved from https://www.usenix.org/conference/woot16/workshop-program/presentation/parkGoogle Scholar
- [28] . [n. d.]. Retroreflective Sensor MLV12-54/47/92. Retrieved from https://www.pepperl-fuchs.com/korea/ko/classid_11.htm?view=productdetails&prodid=7224Google Scholar
- [29] . 2019. Learning deep features for one-class classification. IEEE Transactions on Image Processing 28, 11 (2019), 5450–5463.Google Scholar
- [30] . 2015. Remote attacks on automated vehicles sensors: Experiments on camera and LiDAR. Black Hat Eur. 11 (2015).Google Scholar
- [31] . 2016. “Why should I trust you?”: Explaining the predictions of any classifier. In Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining.Google ScholarDigital Library
- [32] . 2014. Color Stability of LEDs: Understanding the Basics. Retrieved from https://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/royer_stability_lightfair2014.pdfGoogle Scholar
- [33] . 2017. Illusion and dazzle: Adversarial optical channel exploits against lidars for automotive applications. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems. Springer.Google ScholarCross Ref
- [34] . 2020. The system that cried wolf: Sensor security analysis of wide-area smoke detectors for critical infrastructure. ACM Trans. Priv. Secur. 23, 3, Article
15 (June 2020), 32 pages.DOI: Google ScholarDigital Library - [35] . 2016. Sampling race: Bypassing timing-based analog active sensor spoofing detection on analog-digital systems. In Proceedings of the 10th USENIX Workshop on Offensive Technologies (WOOT’16).Google Scholar
- [36] . 2015. PyCRA: Physical challenge-response authentication for active sensors under spoofing attacks. In Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security.Google ScholarDigital Library
- [37] . 2010. Angular CCT uniformity of phosphor converted white LEDs: Effects of phosphor materials and packaging structures. IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. 23, 3 (2010).Google ScholarCross Ref
- [38] . [n. d.]. Photoelectric Sensors Theory of Operation. Retrieved from https://www.softnoze.com/downloads/Sensor%20Basics%204.pdfGoogle Scholar
- [39] . 2014. Growth of low-defect-density nonpolar a-plane GaN on r-plane sapphire using pulse NH 3 interrupted etching. Optics Expr. 22, 3 (2014).Google ScholarCross Ref
- [40] . 2020. Light commands: Laser-based audio injection attacks on voice-controllable systems. In Proceedings of the 29th USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX Security’20).Google Scholar
- [41] . [n. d.]. Modulation of Light. Retrieved from https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Modulation+of+LightGoogle Scholar
- [42] . [n. d.]. Compact CCD Spectrometers. Retrieved from https://www.thorlabs.com/newgrouppage9.cfm?objectgroup_id=3482Google Scholar
- [43] . [n. d.]. Cosine Corrector for SMA-Connectorized Fiber. Retrieved from https://www.thorlabs.com/thorproduct.cfm?partnumber=CCSA1Google Scholar
- [44] . 2019. Fingerprinting light emitting diodes using spectrometer. Electron. Lett. 55, 24 (2019).Google ScholarCross Ref
- [45] . 2009. Effect of phosphor particle size on luminous efficacy of phosphor-converted white LED. J. Lightw. Technol. 27, 22 (2009).Google Scholar
- [46] . 2011. Physically unclonable functions: Manufacturing variability as an unclonable device identifier. In Proceedings of the 21st Edition of the Great Lakes Symposium on Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI. ACM.Google ScholarDigital Library
- [47] . [n. d.]. The Principle of Blood Pressure Detector. Retrieved from http://www.vicardio.care/how-it-works/Google Scholar
- [48] . 2002. Investigation of defects and surface polarity in GaN using hot wet etching together with microscopy and diffraction techniques. Mater. Sci. Eng.: B 93, 1-3 (2002).Google ScholarCross Ref
- [49] . [n. d.]. Google Waymo. Retrieved from https://waymo.com/waymo-driver/Google Scholar
- [50] . 2006. Defect reduction and efficiency improvement of near-ultraviolet emitters via laterally overgrown GaN on a GaN/patterned sapphire template. Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 16 (2006).Google ScholarCross Ref
- [51] . 2018. Analyzing and enhancing the security of ultrasonic sensors for autonomous vehicles. IEEE Internet Things J. 5, 6 (
Dec 2018).DOI: Google ScholarCross Ref - [52] . 2016. Can you trust autonomous vehicles: Contactless attacks against sensors of self-driving vehicle. DEF CON 24 (2016).Google Scholar
- [53] . 2012. Conformal phosphor coating using capillary microchannel for controlling color deviation of phosphor-converted white light-emitting diodes. Optics Expr. 20, 5 (2012).Google ScholarCross Ref
- [54] . 2014. Acoustic fingerprinting revisited: Generate stable device id stealthily with inaudible sound. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security.Google ScholarDigital Library
- [55] . 1997. Algorithm 778: L-BFGS-B: Fortran subroutines for large-scale bound-constrained optimization. ACM Trans. Math. Softw. 23, 4 (1997), 550–560.Google ScholarDigital Library
- [56] . 2018. FBSleuth: Fake base station forensics via radio frequency fingerprinting. In Proceedings of the Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security.Google ScholarDigital Library
- [57] . 2017. Source cell phone verification from speech recordings using sparse representation. Digit. Sig. Process. 62 (2017).Google Scholar
Index Terms
- Lightbox: Sensor Attack Detection for Photoelectric Sensors via Spectrum Fingerprinting
Recommendations
Mobile Jamming Attack and its Countermeasure in Wireless Sensor Networks
AINAW '07: Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications Workshops - Volume 01Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks are serious threats due to the resources constrained property in wireless sensor networks. Jamming attacks are the representative energy-consumption DoS attacks that can be launched easily. Hence, many countermeasures ...
Security Assessment of Wideband Spectrum Sensors
2019 IEEE International Symposium on Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks (DySPAN)We investigate security vulnerabilities of wideband spectrum sensors to denial of service (DoS) attacks, launched by an adversary with limited power budget. We survey traditional spectrum analysis methods and compressed-sensing (CS) spectrum sensors in ...
Optimal collusion attack for digital fingerprinting
MM '10: Proceedings of the 18th ACM international conference on MultimediaThe collusion attack is a cost-efficient attack against digital finger-printing where classes of users combine their fingerprinted content for the purpose of attenuating or removing the fingerprints. A recently introduced gradient attack which appeared ...
Comments